Prior to 1994, black teachers in South Africa were denied the right to strike. This left them vulnerable to exploitation and with little recourse to justice. The Constitution entrenched employees’ and teachers’ collective right to strike in the Bill of Rights. This right is recognised as a fundamental human right by the International Labour Organization (ILO). To give effect to it, Parliament passed the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995 (LRA). This book critically discusses whether the LRA conforms to ILO standards particularly in respect to teacher strikes.

Primary strikes, secondary strikes and protest action are evaluated in detail. The book advocates for amendments to the LRA to ensure complete national and international adherence. The suggested amendments concern the definition of strikes, their procedures, prohibitions and consequences.

The book also examines the options available in dealing with strike violence. It highlights why arbitration cannot be a replacement for strikes, and why teacher strikes are important for a functional democracy. The book also analyses the debate about teacher professionalism versus trade unionism. It shows that trade unionism and strikes do not negate professionalism but are essential in maintaining a teacher’s professional status.

Ultimately, the book develops a balanced South African model for teacher strikes that complies with ILO standards, accords with the Constitution, and reasonably balances a teacher’s right to strike with a student’s right to education.

Dr Mohamed Alli Chicktay (BProc LLB LLM PhD (Wits)) is an academic at the Wits School of Law who has published extensively in South African and international law journals. He studied negotiation and mediation at Harvard Law School, and has presented conference papers in India, Malaysia, Greece, England and South Africa. Dr Chicktay has co-authored books on dispute resolution and labour law, and is a practicing mediator who has worked for the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA), Tokiso, Ilanga Labour Associates, Mediate Works and Bargaining Councils. He also has provided mediation and arbitration training to legal professionals, academics and parliamentarians from several African countries. Dr Chicktay was previously the chairperson of the South African Companies Tribunal and a commissioner with the Broadcasting Complaints Commission of South Africa (BCCSA).

Preface

Table of Cases

Table of statutes, statutory instruments and conventions

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION    

1.1          Purpose and significance of this book     

CHAPTER 2: THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTING TEACHER UNIONS’ RIGHT TO STRIKE: AN ANALYSIS OF THE DEBATE               

2.1          Introduction      

2.2          The debate about teacher strikes: should the right to strike be protected?            

2.2.1      Teacher strikes are important for collective bargaining                   

2.2.2      Teacher strikes protect teachers from abuse by the state              

2.2.3      Teacher strikes cause harm to students

2.2.4      Laws prohibiting strikes are ineffective                 

2.2.5      Strikes are socio-economic rights and are thus less deserving of enforcement and implementation            

2.2.6      The effect of strikes on employees and their families                       

2.2.7      Teacher professionalism or trade unionism          

2.2.8      Strikes distort democracy            

2.2.9      Why compulsory arbitration is not a suitable alternative to strikes

2.2.10    Strikes in the public sector          

2.2.11    The importance of teacher strikes for South Africa                            

2.3          Conclusion         

CHAPTER 3: THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPLYING WITH ILO STANDARDS 

3.1          Introduction      

3.2          The debate on whether we need to comply with international labour standards                 

3.2.1      The ineffectiveness of labour standards

3.2.2      Labour standards could be seen as a barrier to market entry since it is dominated by trade unions             

3.2.3      The economic debate   

3.2.4      The unemployment debate        

3.2.5      Developed countries are merely calling for compliance with ILO standards for protectionist purposes       

3.2.6      High labour standards could result in the exploitation of undocumented migrants and should thus not be complied with                  

3.2.7      Employees in developed countries are paid more because they are more productive than employees in developing countries     

3.2.8      Forcing developing countries to comply with ILO standards violates their right to sovereignty 

3.2.9      There is no such thing as a universal set of workers’ rights            

3.2.10    Countries calling for compliance with ILO standards are being hypocritical, since they themselves have not complied with labour standards

3.3          Refocusing the debate  

3.3.1      South Africa’s constitutional and statutory obligations to comply with ILO standards

3.3.2      The ILO as a credible institution whose standards are worthy of compliance         

3.3.3      ILO standards are integral to other human rights                               

3.4          Conclusion                         

CHAPTER 4: SOURCES OF STRIKE LAWS AND STANDARDS: THE ILO AND SOUTH AFRICA                  

4.1          Introduction                      

4.2          ILO and its sources on strikes     

4.2.1      The Abolition of Forced Labour Convention 105 of 1957                 

4.2.2      Articles 4, 6 and 7 of the Voluntary Conciliation and Arbitration Recommendation no. 92 of 1951                

4.2.3      Recommendation concerning the Status of Teachers (Paris, October 1966)            

4.2.4      The Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining, Convention 98 of 1949 (hereafter referred to as Convention 98) and The Freedom of Association and the Protection of the Right to Organize Convention 87 of 1948 (hereafter referred to as Convention 87)                    

4.3          South African sources on teacher strike laws                       

4.3.1      The common law                             

4.3.2      The Education Labour Relations Act 146 of 1993 (hereafter referred to as the ELRA)

4.3.3      The Constitution                             

4.3.4      The Labour Relations Act                             

4.4          Conclusion                         

CHAPTER 5: DEFINITION OF STRIKES     

5.1          Introduction                      

5.2          Purpose of the strike                     

5.2.1      To promote employment interests         

5.2.2      Protest action                   

5.2.3      Secondary strikes                            

5.3          The form that the strike should take                       

5.3.1      Complete refusal to work                            

5.3.2      Partial refusal to work                   

5.3.3      Retardation of work                       

5.3.4      Obstruction of work                        

5.3.5      Refusal to do overtime work (also known as an overtime ban)                     

5.4          Who is allowed to strike?                            

5.4.1      Primary and secondary strikes                   

5.4.2      Protest action                   

5.5          Conclusion and suggestions                        

CHAPTER 6: PRE-STRIKE PROCEDURES                 

6.1          Introduction                      

6.2          ILO’s procedural requirements                 

6.2.1      Ballot                    

6.2.2      Notice                  

6.2.3      Cooling-off period                          

6.2.4      Compulsory pre-strike mediation, conciliation and arbitration                     

6.2.5      Compulsory arbitration as a substitute for strikes                             

6.2.6      Voluntary conciliation, mediation and arbitration                              

6.2.7      Conclusion on international law and strike procedures                   

6.3          South African law: procedural prerequisites for teacher strikes                   

6.3.1      The procedure for a primary strike                          

6.3.2      Secondary strikes                            

6.3.3      Protest action                   

6.4          Conclusion                         

CHAPTER 7: CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE STRIKES ARE PROHIBITED                             

7.1          Introduction                      

7.2          Essential services                            

7.2.1      ILO and essential services                            

7.2.2      South African law on essential services                  

7.2.3      Comparing ILO standards and South African law on essential services and implication for teachers                             

7.2.4      Suggested model in dealing with teacher strikes as essential services                      

7.3          Emergency and wars                      

7.4          Public servants acting in the name of the state                   

7.5          Voluntary arbitration                     

7.6          Restricting the right to strike during the duration of collective agreements                           

7.7          Restricting strikes on issues covered by ministerial determinations                           

7.8          No person may take part in a strike if that person is bound by an arbitration award           

7.9          Collective agreements prohibiting strikes                             

7.10        Prohibition of strikes on rights issues                     

7.10.1    Dismissal for operational reasons             

7.10.2    Organisational rights      

7.10.3    Conclusion on rights disputes    

7.11        Conclusion                         

CHAPTER 8: THE CONSEQUENCES OF PROTECTED STRIKES AND PROTEST ACTION                           

8.1          Introduction                      

8.2          The ILO’s position on protected strikes (primary strikes, secondary strikes and protest action)

8.3          South African law on protected strikes and protest action                             

8.3.1      The LRA’s consequences of protected primary and secondary strikes                       

8.3.2      Consequences of protected protest action                           

8.4          Conclusion                         

CHAPTER 9: CONSEQUENCES OF UNPROTECTED STRIKES                            

9.1          Introduction                      

9.2          The ILO’s position on unprotected strikes (primary strikes, secondary strikes and protest action)                 

9.3          South African law on unprotected strikes and protest action                        

9.3.1      The LRA’s consequences of unprotected primary and secondary strikes                  

9.3.2      The LRA’s consequences of unprotected protest action                  

9.4          Conclusion         

CHAPTER 10: BALANCING THE RIGHT TO STRIKE AND THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION IN COMPLIANCE WITH ILO STANDARDS               

10.1        Introduction                      

10.2        Balancing teachers’ primary strikes and pupils’ educational needs in compliance with ILO standards                          

10.2.1    Definition of primary strikes                       

10.2.2    Procedure for primary strikes                    

10.2.3    Circumstances where primary strikes are prohibited                       

10.2.4    Consequences of protected and unprotected primary strikes                      

10.3        Balancing teachers’ secondary strikes and pupils’ educational needs in compliance with ILO standards                     

10.4        Balancing teachers’ right to take part in protest action and pupils’ educational needs in compliance with ILO standards                           

10.4.1    Introduction                      

10.4.2    Definition of protest action                         

10.4.3    Procedure for protected protest action 

10.4.4    Circumstances where protest action is prohibited                             

10.4.5    Consequence of protected and unprotected protest action                          

10.5        Conclusion      

BIBLIOGRAPHY                 

Texts, articles and dissertations 

Index               

Teachers

Trade Unions

Labour Practitioners